Incorrect use of the apostrophe in students’ writing is very common.

Apostrophes are used in the following ways:

• When letters have been left out of a word. For example:

The library’s still open (meaning the library is still open); it won’t be necessary to… (meaning it will not be necessary).

• To show possession (belonging to). For example: Einstein’s theory of relativity (meaning the theory of relativity of Einstein).

When you are using an apostrophe to show possession, then the position of the apostrophe depends on whether you have a singular or plural noun to denote the possessor.

In the following examples the person to whom the object belongs is one person (i.e. a singular noun). For example:

That pen is Simon’s.

Jasmine’s examination papers.

In such case the apostrophe is placed before the s in the word which shows to whom the object belongs. This is the correct position for a singular noun.

(Note: there is no apostrophe in the word “papers” above. This is because this is a simple plural noun — there are no letters missing and no possession is shown).

If something belongs to more than one person (i.e. you have a plural noun), the apostrophe is placed after the s. For example:

The students’ belongings are in the room

Psychologists’ theories have suggested that…

Exceptions:

• Some words have unusual plurals such as child (children) and woman (women). Here, because the plural is different from the singular, we do not need to change the position of the apostrophe — it still goes before the s. For example:

The children’s party…(not childrens’)

The women’s meeting…(not womens’)

• Never use an apostrophe with it to express possession. Only use it to show a missing letter. The simple rule is to only use an apostrophe with it when it means it is. For example:

It’s a shame (meaning it is a shame) that the company was falsely accused.

Full stops are used to divide text and create boundaries, by marking the end of a sentence.

You need to know about sentences to understand the use of the full stop. A sentence is a group of words with a main verb, which makes sense on its own. Sentences often begin with either:

• The subject of the sentence (i.e. the word which controls the action). For example:

Patients in hospital experience many stressors they believe they cannot change.

Common subject words include proper names (i.e. of authors, such as Dickens or Smith), concepts, as well as words such as ‘this’, ‘the’, ‘it’.

Things to avoid

• Avoid beginning sentences with certain linking words such as ‘which’, ‘while/whilst’, ‘whereas’ as well as ‘and’ or ‘but’.

• Avoid beginning sentences with expressions ending in‘-ing’. For example:

By collecting relevant data…

• Be careful when giving examples in your writing. The words ‘For example’ should begin a sentence only when a main verb follows. This is shown in the two examples below:

Communication skills can be improved in different ways. For example, role-play provides a means of doing this.

Communication skills can be improved in different ways, for example, through role-play.

In example 1, the sentence begins with ‘For example… ’because the verb ‘to provide’ follows.

In example 2, there is no following main verb, so the ‘for example’ needs to be linked to the previous text by a comma not a full stop.

Other tips

• Make sure that your full stops look like full stops, and that they are distinct from your commas. Some students try to disguise the fact that they do not know whether to use a full stop or a comma, by making the two look alike. Similarly, make sure that the letter that follows a full stop is a capital letter.

• Remember that feedback from your lecturers that points out that there are too many commas in your writing may well mean that your commas are doing the wrong job — one that requires a full stop.

Commas are used to divide up groups of words within a sentence. Commas are extremely important, as they help to keep units of writing together, which helps to clarify understanding and avoids frustrating the reader.

The main functions of commas are as follows:

• To break up parts of the sentence where, in speech, there would be pauses. For example:

After the main points had been presented, the students were asked for their comments.

(Note: The comma in this example neatly divides the meaning into two parts. If there was no comma, the reader would read “presented the students…” as a word group, and this would not make sense without re-reading for clarification.

There would, however, be no comma in the following sentence:

They decided to go to the library and find further information about the topic of the essay.

In this case, a pair of ideas is linked by the word ‘and’. No pausing occurs in speech, and no punctuation (i.e. comma) is needed to clarify the meaning.

• To present items in a list. For example: I would like you to watch the video, take notes and be prepared to ask any relevant questions.

• To divide words which refer to the subject of a sentence. For example:

The President of the Society, Julie Jones, received a standing ovation after her speech.

• To punctuate certain relative clauses (i.e. parts of a sentence beginning with “who”, “which” or “whose”). For example:

The University, which is situated in the centre of Canterbury, has an excellent academic reputation.

In this example, the part of the sentence between the commas is designed to add extra information to the statement about the University.

A comma is not always used with words like “who” or “which”. Consider the following example:

I like lecturers who give high grades for my work.

In this example the meaning is derived for linking up the “lecturers” and “who give high grades…”, not from separating out these two parts of the sentence. Try reading this sentence with a comma (pause) before the word “who”. Does the sentence make sense with this comma?

Colons and semi-colons are important aspects of punctuation, and can help to organise and add structure to your writing. There are, however, certain rules which govern their use.

Colons (:)

Colons should only be used as follows:

• To introduce a list. For example:

An essay usually includes the following components: an introduction, a main body of text and a conclusion.

• To show a link between the units of meaning. The second unit explains or summarises the first. For example:

The results of the referendum were very clear: there was a need for a change in policy.

Semi-colons (;)

Semi-colons are useful in long sentences but be careful not to over-use them. They give a longer pause than a comma but not as long as a full stop. They are typically used in this way:

• To separate long items in a list. For example:

In the library, there were several students reading journal articles; a couple of lecturers checking the stock; and a librarian returning books to the shelves.

• To provide a break in a sentence, while showing the relationship between the two parts. For example:

Night was falling; he knew all was lost.

• To express an idea which is too short to merit a new sentence. For instance:

Wherever possible, students should try to organise their academic work by using ‘planning tools’; these can help to clarify ideas.

• In some cases semi-colons are followed by linking words, as in the following example.

They were unsure regarding the outcome of their assignment they were about to undertake; nevertheless, they would give it their best attempt.

The semi-colon can be a powerful tool in helping you to organise your writing, and present your ideas clearly and meaningfully. However, it will lose its effectiveness if over-used. Think carefully about how you will use it, and remember to use it sparingly.

Hyphens:

A hyphen joins two or more words together. For example:

king-size

ex-husband

Hyphens are shorter than dashes and can be represented by the minus key on your keyboard e.g. -

Dashes:

A dash (also known as an em-dash) separates words into parenthetical statements. For example:

The students were being so noisy — chatting, scrapping chairs and coughing — that the tutor couldn't concentrate.

A shorter version of the dash (known as the en-dash) is used to mark ranges and with the meaning “to” in phrases. For example:

London–Paris cycle ride.

This car can accelerate from 0–60 in 10 seconds

Dashes are longer and come in two sizes. They can be inserted in Word as follows: